--from the Peony archives (revised for a certain Prince who dwells in the Palace of Winds-- after he reminded me of the what was perhaps the most famous dream journey of all time)
Samarkand and Bukhara-- the names continue to evoke images of the great riches of the silk road. You will all remember that Oscar Wilde sang of both the treasures that were traded as well as the merchants who controlled the roads in his famous poem Ave Imperatrix:
The almond groves of Samarqand,
Bokhara, where red lilies blow.
And Oxus, by whose yellow sand
The grave white-turbaned merchants go --Oscar Wilde
Part of the vast Persian empire, it was the Central Asian people of Sogdiana who monopolized these ancient trade routes connecting the East with the West. Known in Latin as "Transoxiana," or "land beyond the Oxus River," the place was made famous during Alexander the Great Times, during his great exploits East as it was here that became the northeastern-most point of Hellenistic culture. Yes, all roads lead to Oxiana. Populated by Iranian peoples, the area was incorporated into the Persian Empire first during the Achaemenid Empire and later became a colonial outpost of the Persian Empire during Sassanid times. It was during these later times that the area became known as Sogdiana.
With their "contemplative green eyes flashing" and their "purple beards flying in the wind," the hardy Sogdian traders of Samarkand and Bukhara led caravans on camel-back and horseback over the treacherous mountain passes of the Roof of the World and across the endless stretches of sand of the Taklamakan Desert toward China. And, it was their language, Sogdian, which was the lingua franca of the East during Tang dynasty times.
I can well imagine what the fine citizens of ancient Sogdiana were like having spent time in Kashmir. Another Central Asian Persian people, trade is in their blood. With its teeming markets and colorful bazaars, upon our arrival in the Vale, my pet peeve kept mumbling, "We're in Central Asia. Finally, Central Asia." Sultan too kept repeating this refrain with his, "To make a sale is to make a friend." Talking over unending cups of Kashmiri chai-- cinnamon and cardamom, and a dash of milk-- it was always how business was going, or talk about some purchase--buying a new silk carpet or a Pashima shawl-- that dominated conversation. This is how I imagine the Sogdians.
Starting at the eastern edge of the Persian empire, the Kingdom of Sogdiana reached almost to Kashgar. There, the Silk Road split into two routes: one north and one south of the desert of death. With a name which means "if you go in, you'll never come back out," the Taklamakan Desert is one of the largest sandy deserts on earth. With virtually no available water, it was extremely hazardous to try and cross the desert, and so the Silk Road split into two routes. And, it was along these two routes skirting the northern and southern edges of the Desert that a string of Buddhist Kingdoms dotted the oases.
On the Southern Route, there was the Kingdom of Khotan--famous for its exquisite jade and felt carpets; and Kashgar-- which has always been a city of legend. Of course, the world's most famous Silk Road site, Dunhuang, was also located just west of where the Northern and Southern Routes met back up again. Famous for its library, Dunhuang is also the location of the Mogao Caves of A Thousand Buddhas. Located just West of the Jade Gate, Dunhuang was just West of China proper.
Along the Northern Route were the oasis cities of Gaochang, Turfan, Urumqi, and of course, Kucha. Gaochang was perhaps the most important Buddhist Kingdom. Built at the foot of the Flaming Mountains, the Bezeklik Caves of a Thousand Buddhas, located close to the ancient city, are renown for their dazzling murals. With paintings of Uighur princesses and Western traders, the place during Tang times was a magnet for people from the four corners of the civilized world.
To me, while I can imagine Sogdiana in all its Persian glory-- that at the same time there also existed flourishing Buddhist Kingdoms which were centers of great scholarship in this inhospitable desert-- well, it actually boggles my mind. But, the cities located along the desert were, in fact, places of learning where the greatest minds of the Buddhist world gathered to discuss Buddhist doctrine. These cultural exchanges were conducted in the languages of scholarship of the day--Tibetan, Sanskrit, Chinese and various Prakrit. One of the most famous translators of Buddhism, during the time Kumarjiva, was from Kucha (his mother was a Kuchan princess while his father was Kashmiri). So brilliant some legends have it that he was carried off by the Chinese. Dragged back to the capital he was made to translate the important Buddhist treatises of the time. Others say he went willingly. Whatever the case were it not for Kumarjiva, China and Japan would probably not have quite the same cast of Buddhism it has today-- such was his influence.
The great problem of the time: how to translate abstract philosophical terms from Sanskrit (a language with an extraordinarily rich philosophical lexicon that perhaps more then any language extinct or extant could express abstract concepts with specific vocabulary) into Chinese (a language poor in abstract vocabulary). Words had to be invented.
There were huge linguistic and conceptual gaps that had to be overcome (which probably makes Sam and my wrangling over 徳 seem pretty inconsequantial...) I am talking Herculean problems. And, Kumarjiva, to get the closest Chinese approximation of the Sanskrit possible would engage in long discussions with a hundred students to try and fit a Sanskrit word to the Chinese mind before trying to come up with a new combination of characters (and it is in this spirit that I "wrestle" with Sam... there is no other reason).
On this topic of great translation projects, something very similar went on when China opened up to the west in more modern times. Both the Chinese and the Japanese had to think quick to come up with new vocabulary to express Western concepts of democracy or freedom (an entire lexicon, had to be come up with for terms used in discussing the fine arts before Japan could participate in one of the legendary World Exhibitions, for example).
They call him the world's greatest translator. A proponent of i-yaku 意訳 (meaning-oriented translation) over that of choku-yaku 直訳 (direct or literal translations), Kumarjiva is not only known for the tremendous breadth of his translations but also for the beautiful flowing smoothness of the language-- which is to say it reads beautifully. And, it needs to be stated again that is is all the more of an achievement because of the fact that he was working in what is arguable one of the most complicated areas of Buddhist philosophy.
Born a Theravada Buddhist, Kumarjiva converted to Mahayana Buddhism during his student days in Kashgar and spent much time working on advancing the ideas contained in the great Indian philosopher Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka theory.
"Form is void, void is form" -- Heart Sutra
The philosophy is way too complicated for me to even attempt to think about, and due to its slippery slope vocabulary that attempts to explain a state of existence where "nothing comes into being independently," (got that?), the nature of the Chinese language just could not cope. Kumarjiva devoted the later years of his life with the task of translating this body of work, but many gnawing questions remained.
It was to this task that our hero, Xuanzang, the Tang period Buddhist monk, who made his historic "Journey to the West," devoted his entire life. If you don't know who he is-- you should. In East Asia, he is a household name-- and even in India, most educated people know of the great travels of Xuanzang.
Of course, another shining hero reminds me: his journey was immortalized in that more famous mythic Dream Journey to the West 西遊記 (note the kanji for "play"). A devoted monk, in Japanese he is known as 三藏法師 (Teacher of the Tripitaka). Also interesting, in Japanese, his fictional character in the Journey to the West is usually depicted as a woman (see here, for example).
For that reason, during our debates, I like to imagine Sam as a stubborn Kumarajiva and me as a more reasonable and feminine Xuanzang.
Anyway, while I have been-- it is true-- imagining myself in the spirit of Xuanzang, in fact, the Tang dynasty monk was to take his project a bit more seriously than I do. Passing through the Jade Gate, the mild-mannered monk traveled through all the Buddhist Kingdoms along the Northern and Southern Route before turning south to India. He almost didn't make it to India, though, so intent was the devout Buddhist King of the Kingdom of Gaochang to keep the pilgrim there that the King tried to hold him there hostage. Rather than from any ill-will, the King quite simply could not bear to let such a stimulating conversationalist and brilliant debater leave his realm.
You can hardly blame him, actually.
Many people consider Xuanzang to be the greatest traveler of all time. Marco Polo perhaps traveled further in terms of distance-- but well, that was about 450 years later (and things were more comfortable then). However, much more important is this: while Polo traveled for personal reasons of wealth and fame, our man from Chang'an traveled to find the Truth-- to understand the nature of reality, not just for himself but for the sake of all sentient beings.
His great journey took him first across the desert Kingdoms and then to Kashmir, which was a great center of Buddhist learning at the time. He continued South where he ended up at Nalanda University. There he studied Buddhist philosophy, logic and Sanskrit. Returning to China, he hauled a library of books back with him and spent the remainder of his days teaching and translating.
Yes, he was like a translator in a caliph's dream
**
Anyway, for the Prince in the Palace of Winds, I leave you this video of the latest in Japanese celebrations of your beloved Journey to the West. The popular Majik Monkey music-- to the 2007 drama series is here, and for what it's worth, I am not that faraway either, dreaming the same dream journey in my palace here.
Fingarette to start tomorrow at Chris' place: A Ku Indeed!
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